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Química; ciência e engenharia química
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Engenharia/ciência do petróleo
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Amostras de tradução submetidas : 8
espanhol para inglês: Natural Gas Reserves General field: Tecn./Engenharia Detailed field: Engenharia/ciência do petróleo
Texto de origem - espanhol Reservas de Gas Natural
Los campos de gas del area de CCCC tienen almacene en areniscas con presiones
normales, a una profundidad entre 6 500 Y 9 000 pies (entre 1 980 Y 2 750 metros). Existen
cinco formaciones en el area que contienen hidrocarburos: VVVV, CCC1, NNNN, NNN1 y EEEE. EI
numero de formaciones productivas en cada campo varia de dos en MMMM a cinco en
CCC2. Las cinco formaciones tienen propiedades petrofisicas y espesores muy similares
en toda el area de CCCC.
Todos los campos del area de CCCC tienen almacenes de gas de condensacion retrograda
con la presion inicial de yacimiento ligeramente slightly por encima de la presion del punto de rocio. EI
rendimiento en condensado y Iiquidos de planta varia entre 50 y 35 barriles (Bbls) por millon
de pies cubicos (MMCF) de gas seco de ventas. Los contaminantes del gas son minimos,
promediando 1% de nitrogeno y 2% de dioxido de carbono.
Las caracteristicas mas importantes de los almacenes del area de CCCC son un espesor
excepcional de arena neta productiva y su transmisibilidad (el producto de la permeabilidad y
espesor 0 KH). EI espesor productivo neto varia entre 90 y 210 metros, siendo el promedio
135 metros. Las permeabilidades estan entre 20 milidarcys (md) y 500+ md, y la porosidad del
almacen varia entre e111% y eI21%. Los valores de KH de pozo van de 30.000 a 100.000+,
resultando en unos valores de "absolute open flow" ("AOF") calculados que van desde 470
MMCFD (13.3 MMm3/dla) hasta mas de 1 BCFD (28.3 MMm3/dia). Las buenas cualidades
petrofisicas y un programa de perforacion de pozos bien disenado ("minimal damage") evitan
la necesidad de tratamientos de completacion mas alia (it allys) de la perforacion de la tuberia de
revestimiento. Los pozos se completan como pozos individuales en 7 pulgadas (17,78 cm).
Para definir las estructuras y la estratigraffa de los campos del Bloque 35 se han usado datos
sismicos 3D de alta calidad. En Octubre de 2005 se completo una campana sismica 3D en el
Bloque 21, utilizandose la evaluacion posterior en el diseno e implementacion de un programa
de perforacion de pozos de desarrollo en el bloque. EI area productiva de los reservorios ha
sido definida por uno o mas de los metodos siguientes: identificacion del contacto gas/agua en
logs de pozo, graficos de gradiente de presion, evaluacion de la amplitud sismica , y "spill
point' estructural. Hay cuatro reservorios en los que el contacto gas/agua no ha sido
identificado por los logs de pozo: CCC2 VVVV y CCC1, PPPP, NNNN y MMMM NNN1. Se ha
inferido el contacto gas/agua para cada uno de estos almacenes usando alguno de los otros
metodos mencionados.
Estimaciones Probabilisticas
EI consultor (consultant) de las Reservas del Proyecto, DeGolyer and MacNaughton ("D&M"), ha estimado
el gas "in situ" original P90, P50 Y P10 en los dos bloques, Bloque 35 y Bloque 21, en su
informe de Diciembre de 2005.
Metodologia General
Para estimar los volumenes totales de gas original en el lugar se realizaron
evaluaciones probabilisticas Probabilistic risk assessment de los cuatro yacimientos. Este metodo consistió en evaluar el volumen de poros de hidrocarburos, utilizando un enfoque cuantitativo de evaluaci6n de
riesgos. Para evaluar los volumenes de poros de hidrocarburos y los volumenes en el lugar se
utilizaron todos los datos disponibles.
Metodologia Estadistica
Las distribuciones probabilisticas para las variables fueron derivadas de (1) las
interpretaciones de mapeo; (2) los datos geologicos, geofisicos y de ingenieria facilitados; (3)
los conocimientos locales, regionales y globales; y (4) los estudios de yacimientos y casos en la Iiteratura. Para modelar los volumenes totales de gas en el lugar se utilizaron los siguientes
parametros: volumen neto de roca, porosidad, saturacion de agua, y factor de volumen de la
formacion. Se emplearon escenarios de analisis deterministicos para construir y generar los
parametros de entrada. En este informe se utiliza el convenio de denotar la probabilidad con
un subindice que representa la probabilidad acumulativa.
Asimismo, se calculó el valor esperado (EV) de los volumenes de
gas en el lugar. EI EV, una medida de la tendencia central, es la media probabilisticamente
ponderada de todos los valores posibles, cuando se utilizan las respectivas probabilidades
como factores de ponderacion. EI muestreo de hipercubo latino se empleó como mejor forma
de representar las colas de las distribuciones.
Resultados
Las tablas 1 y 2 del Certificado resumen las estimaciones de P90, P50, P 10, y EV de los
volumenes totales de gas en el lugar para las areas contractuales del Bloque 21 y el Bloque
35, respectivamente. La suma o multiplicaci6n aritmetica de P90, P50 y P10 de cualquier
otra probabilidad y su valor asociado no sera equivalente a los resultados del modelo debido a
la agregacion estadistica y el muestreo.
Tradução - inglês Natural Gas Reserves
The gas fields of area CCCC has normal pressure reservoirs in sandstones at a depth of between 6500 and 9000 feet (between 1980 and 2750m.). There are five formations which contain hydrocarbons in the area VVVV, CCC1, NNNN, NNN1 y EEEE. The number of productive formations in each field varies from two in MMMM to five in CCC2. The five formations have petrophysical properties and thicknesses which are similar in the whole of the CCCC area.
All the fields in the CCCC area have reservoirs of retrograde condensation gas with initial reservoir pressure slightly above the dew point pressure. The yield of condensate and natural gas liquids varies between 50 and 35 barrels (Bbls) per million cubic feet (MMCF) of dry gas vented. Gas contaminants are minimal, averaging 1% nitrogen and 2% carbon dioxide.
The most important characteristics of the reserves in area CCCC are an unusually productive pay sand thickness and its transmissibility (the product of permeability and thickness 0 KH). The productive pay sand varies between 90 and 210 m, averaging 135m. The permeability varies between 20 milidarcys (md) and 500+ md, and the porocity of the reservoir varies between e111% and e121%. The values of KH of the well are in the range 30,000 to 100,000+ resulting in some calculated values of absolute open flow (AOF) which are in the range 470 MMCFD (13.3 MMm3/day) to more than 1 BCDF (28.3 MMm3/day). The good petrophysical qualities and a well-designed (minimal damage) drilling programme avoids the necessity for well completion activities which go beyond the drilling of the casing. The wells are completed as 7 inch (17.78cm) individual wells. To define the structures and stratigraphy of the fields in Block 35 high quality 3D seismic data have been used. In October 2005 a 3D seismic campaign was completed which used the previous evaluation in the design and implementation of the development well drilling programme in the block. The productive area of the reservoirs has been defined by one or more of the following methods: identification of the gas/water contact in well logs, pressure gradient charts, evaluation of seismic wave amplitude and structural spill point. There are 4 reservoirs in which the gas/water contact has been identified by well logs: CCC2 VVVV and CCC1, NNNN and MMMM NNN1. These have inferred the gas/water contact for each of these reservoirs using some of the other methods mentioned.
Probable Reserves Estimations
The consultants for the Project Reserves, DeGolyer and MacNaughton (“D&M”), have estimated the original gas in situ P90, P50 and P10 in 2 blocks, Block 35 and Block 21, in their report of December 2010.
General Methodology
In order to estimate the total volume of original gas in place they have carried out probabilistic evaluations. Probabilistic risk assessment of the 4 reservoirs. This method consisted of an evaluation of the hydrocarbon pore volume, using a quantitative approach to risk assessment. All available data was used to evaluate the hydrocarbon pore volumes and the gas in place volumes.
Statistical Methods
The distribution of the probable reserves were acquired from (1) mapping interpretations; (2) the geological, geophysical and engineering data provided; (3) local, regional and global knowledge; and (4) studies of reservoirs and reports from the literature. The following parameters were used to model the total volume of in situ gas: the net volume of rock, porosity, water saturation and formation quantity factor. Deterministic analysis scenarios were employed in order to reconstruct and generate the input parameters. This report uses the convention of denoting the probability with a sub-index which represents the accumulative probability. In addition, the expected value (EV) of the in situ gas volumes are calculated. The EV, a measure of the key trends, is the weighted average of all the possible values, when the respective probabilities are used a weighting factors. Latin hypercube sampling was used as a better way of representing the tails in the distributions.
Results
Tables 1 and 2 of the report summarise the estimates of P90, P50, P10 and the EV of the total volumes of in situ gas for the contractual areas of Block 21 and Block 35 respectively. The arithmetic sum or multiplication of P90, P50 and P10 of any other probability and its associated value will not be equivalent to the model results, due to the statistical aggregation and sampling.
espanhol para inglês: Polar bears General field: Ciência Detailed field: Meio ambiente e ecologia
Texto de origem - espanhol EL CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO AMENAZA CON EXTINGUIR LOS OSOS POLARES
La reducción de los hielos en el Ártico facilitará la navegación
La extinción de los osos polares hacia finales de siglo por la disminución de la capa helada en el Ártico es uno de los posibles efectos del calentamiento global, según un informe presentado en un congreso sobre el cambio climático en la zona de la capital islandesa. La reducción de los hielos árticos amenaza a muchas especies, pero puede facilitar la navegación entre el Atlántico y el Pacífico por esa ruta.
Las temperaturas medias en el Ártico han aumentado casi 1,1 grados centígrados en el último siglo, el doble de la media del planeta, y las temperaturas invernales son ahora dos grados centígrados más altas, indica el informe. El reforzamiento del efecto invernadero provocado por el consumo de combustibles fósiles está calentando la región ártica casi el doble de rápido que en el resto del mundo. En algunas partes de Alaska y de Rusia, según el informe, se han registrado incrementos de la temperatura en invierno muy fuertes, entre dos y cuatro grados centígrados, en el último medio siglo, y el volumen de océano ocupado por el hielo en los tres últimos años ha sido el más reducido desde que hay registros.
El estudio, realizado durante cuatro años por más de 250 científicos y representantes de organizaciones indígenas, se denomina Evaluación del Impacto del Clima en el Ártico (ACIA, en sus siglas inglesas) y ha sido auspiciado por los ocho países del Consejo del Ártico (Canadá, Dinamarca, Finlandia, Islandia, Noruega, Rusia, Suecia y EEUU).
Las conclusiones de la reunión científica que se celebra esta semana en Reikiavik, que abarca en su programa tanto el sistema climático ártico y su interrelación con el sistema global como los impactos en las actividades humanas y en los ecosistemas, se aportarán a la reunión ministerial del Consejo del Ártico, convocada para el próximo veinticuatro de noviembre también en Reikiavik.
El calentamiento provocará la destrucción de hielos en la ruta marítima del Ártico, entre el Atlántico y el Pacífico. “Se podrá navegar, pero incluso en invierno los buques necesitarán cascos gruesos y el apoyo de rompehielos”, comentó Arne Instanes, especialista de transporte que ha participado en el estudio. La ruta que pasa por el norte de Rusia probablemente esté abierta durante 120 días al año hacia 2100, en lugar de los 30 días del año 2000. Pero los altos costes y el peligro de los icebergs impedirán una explosión del transporte allí.
Aún así, la navegación se beneficiará, facilitando el transporte de minerales como níquel de Rusia, cinc de Alaska o petróleo y gas de las futuras explotaciones árticas, ha comentado Lawson Brigham, director de la Comisión de Investigación Ártica estadounidense. Pero los gobiernos tendrán que afrontar serios problemas a la hora de rescatar a tripulaciones accidentadas o de limpiar vertidos de crudo.
Los grupos ecologistas ya han advertido del peligro para la región que conllevan estos cambios, especialmente si no se regulan las actividades allí.
Tradução - inglês CLIMATE CHANGE THREATENS POLAR BEARS WITH EXTINCTION
The reduction of sea ice in the Arctic will make navigation easier
The extinction of polar bears towards the end of this century, caused by a decrease in the size of the ice cap in the Arctic is one of the possible effects of global warming according to a report presented to a conference on climate change in the Icelandic capital.
Average temperatures in the Arctic increased by almost 1.1 ̊C during the twentieth century, which was double the average experienced by the planet as a whole, with summer temperatures being 2 ̊C higher according to the report. The reinforcement of the greenhouse effect caused by the consumption of fossil fuels is warming the Arctic region at almost twice the rate of the rest of the world. The report shows that some parts of Alaska and Russia experienced very large increases in the winter temperature of between 2 and 4 ̊C during the past half century, and the volume of ocean occupied by ice during the past 3 years has been the smallest since records began.
The study, which has been carried out over 4 years by 250 scientists and the representatives of indigenous organisations is titled Assessment of the Impact of the Climate in the Arctic (ACIA when abbreviated from the English title) and has been sponsored by the 8 countries of the Arctic Council (Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the U.S.A.).
The conclusions of the scientific meeting which takes place this week in Reykjavik, which includes in its programme the Arctic climate system and its interrelationship with the global system as well as the impacts on human activities in these ecosystems will be presented to a meeting of ministers from the Council of the Arctic, convened for the 24th November, also in Reykjavik.
The warming will cause the destruction of sea ice in the shipping lanes of the Arctic between the Atlantic and the Pacific. “It will be possible to navigate, even in winter when the ships will need thick hulls and ice breakers” commented Arne Instanes a specialist in transport who participated in the study. The route which passes through the north of Russia will be probably open for 120 days per year by 2100 as against 30 days in 2000. However, the high costs and the danger of icebergs will impede an explosion in transport there.
Even so, the ability to navigate will be improved, allowing the transportation of minerals such as nickel from Russia, zinc from Alaska, as well as oil and gas from future Arctic exploitation. However, the governments will face serious problems in the event of crews needing rescuing after accidents and the cleaning up of oil spills.
Green organisations have already warned of the dangers to the region that these changes will bring especially if activities there are not regulated.
espanhol para inglês: Advice for Medical Volunteers General field: Medicina Detailed field: Medicina: Assistência médica
Texto de origem - espanhol CONSEJOS PARA MÉDICOS VOLUNTARIOS
Entre estas comunidades se encuentran aproximadamente 15,000 personas. La mayoría de la población se dedica a la producción de maíz, hortalizas y flores para el consumo familiar y abastecimiento del mercado. El valle tiene características particulares las cuales son importantes de conocer para saber como facilitar la educación en cada respectivo lugar.
Las personas del valle tienen una gran cantidad de creencias, las cuales pueden influenciar como piensan, como viven su vida o como se cuidan médicamente. Es importante quebrar algunas de estas creencias para poder mejorar sus vidas, siempre y cuando sea de una manera cordial y respetuosa.
En el valle la confianza de la gente en los extranjeros que visitan sus comunidades no es muy buena: ésta es una de nuestras barreras más grandes en el programa de educación de salud preventiva. En algunas comunidades los extranjeros son vistos como personas que tienen dinero. En otras comunidades se piensa que los extranjeros quieren llevarse a los niños, lo cual no es cierto pero lo dicen para asustar a los niños. En muchas comunidades los extranjeros son aquellos que quieren cambiar el estilo de vida de las personas en la comunidad lo cual no es lo que debemos hacer, ya que nuestro trabajo es facilitar conocimientos y ayudar a mejorar hábitos y conductas.
La religión es otro aspecto importante. En el valle existen dos tipos de religión que predominan: la católica y la evangélica. También encontramos algunos que practican la religión maya. La religión es un aspecto muy importante no solo en el valle, sino en todo el país. Se puede decir que hasta cierto punto la religión gobierna el país. La religión juega un papel importante en las decisiones que toman las personas para vivir su vida como también en quien les da los consejos. Escucharían más fácilmente a un líder religioso que a uno que no practica su religión, por eso es importante no compartir nuestros pensamientos personales acerca de la religión.
Debido a algunas creencias religiosas muchas personas no creen en la medicina occidental ni en los métodos para espaciar los embarazos, ya que éstos no son aprobados por los templos y/o iglesias. Muchas personas usan remedios caseros para cualquiera de sus síntomas, algunos lo han hecho toda la vida y nunca han visitado a un médico.
Con respecto a la higiene hay que recordar que la mayoría de los niños no pueden practicarla adecuadamente ya que muchos no cuentan con los recursos necesarios (agua, letrinas, basureros etc) y en algunos casos muchos no saben las implicaciones que contiene el no hacer cosas simples como lavarse las manos, usar letrinas, botar la basura en su lugar etc. Muchas personas no relacionan los parásitos con los hábitos de higiene que tienen, por lo cual es importante hacer esa conexión sin ofender a nadie ni a sus costumbres.
Tradução - inglês ADVICE FOR MEDICAL VOLUNTEERS
Within these communities there are approximately 15,000 people. The majority of the population is involved in the production of maize, vegetables and flowers both for their own consumption and to supply the market. The valley has particular characteristics which one needs to understand in order to know how to promote education in each respective place.
The people of the valley have a large number of beliefs which can influence their way of thinking, how they live their lives and how they care for themselves medically. It is important to be able to break through some of these beliefs in order to improve their lives, though always by attempting to do this in a manner which is friendly and respectful.
Within the valley the confidence of people in foreigners who visit their community is not very high, and represents one of the main barriers to the programme of education in preventative health. In some communities the foreigners are viewed as people with money. In others they are viewed as people who want to take away their children, which is not true, but which they say in order to frighten their children. In many communities the foreigners are people who want to change the lifestyle of the people of the community which is something which we must not do, since our duty is to help with knowledge and assist in the improvement of habits and behaviours.
Religion is another important aspect. Two types of religion predominate in the valley, Catholic and Evangelical. We have also found some people who practice the Mayan religion. Religion is a very important aspect, not only in the valley, but in the whole country. Religion plays an important role in the decisions taken by people in the way they lead their lives, and from whom they are willing to take advice. They listen more readily to one of their own religious leaders than to someone who does not practice their religion, and as a result of this it is important not to express your religious beliefs with them.
As a result of some religious beliefs many people do not believe in either western medicine or in the method for spacing the time interval between pregnancies since these are not approved by the temples and/or churches. Many people use home-made medicines to treat their symptoms. Some of them have done this all their lives and have never visited a doctor.
In respect of hygiene it is necessary to remember that the majority of the children cannot achieve this to an adequate level since many do not have access to the necessary resources (water, toilets, rubbish disposal facilities etc) and they have no knowledge of the implications of not doing basic things such as washing their hands, using toilets, disposing of rubbish in a suitable manner etc. Many people don’t link parasites with their hygiene habits, and it is necessary to make this connection without offending people and their customs.
português para inglês: Discrimination in the workplace General field: Outra Detailed field: Recursos humanos
Texto de origem - português DIREITOS DE EMPREGO
Discriminação
A lei proibe discriminação no emprego pelos seguintes motivos específicos:
sexo e transsexualidade (Lei da Discriminação por Sexo de 1975 – Sex Discrimination Act 1975)
raça e nacionalidade (Lei das Relações Raciais de 1976 – Race Relations Act 1976)
invalidez (Lei da Discriminação por Invalidez de 1995 – Disability Discrimination Act 1995)
orientação sexual (Regras de Igualdade no Emprego (Orientação Sexual) de 2003 – Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003)
religião ou crença (Regras de Igualdade no Emprego (Religião ou Crença) – Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003)
idade (Regras de Igualdade no Emprego (Idade) – Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006)
Discriminação no salário por motivos de sexo fica abrangida pela legislação de igualdade de salário (Lei da Igualdade de Salário de 1975 – Equal Pay Act 1970). A discriminação de salário por outros motivos está coberta pela legislação apropriada acima referida.
Existem quatro tipos principais de discriminação: directa, indirecta, persiguição e assédio. Há algumas diferenças na lei sobre a discriminação por invalidez, as quais são descritas separadamente abaixo.
Discriminação directa
A discriminação directa é tratar alguém menos favoravelmente do que a outra pessoa por causa do seu sexo, raça, invalidez, orientação sexual, religião ou crença, ou idade. Por exemplo, pagar alguém menos por causa da sua nacionalidade, promover apenas os homens para postos superiores, e fazer perguntas indiscretas apenas a trabalhadores que se acreditam ser homossexuais, seria tudo considerado tratamento menos favorável.
Para ser bem sucedido numa reclamaçåo de discriminação directa, um trabalhador terá de comparar seu tratamento com o de outra pessoa num posto similar, mas que seja de diferente sexo, raça, orientação sexual, etc. Essa pessoa é chamada o comparador. Se não houver nenhum comparador (comparator), o reclamante pode usar um comparador hipotético, mostrando que alguém de diferente sexo, raça, etc., teria sido tratado duma maneira diferente.
Discriminação indirecta
A discriminação indirecta consiste de impor as mesmas condições em todos os trabalhadores, mas com o resultado de que têm um efeito negativo num grupo mais o que noutro. Por exemplo, negar licença anual para festividades culturais ou religiosas pode ser considerado discriminação indirecta; assim pode se recusar a divisão de emprego (job-sharing), porque isso pode ter um efeito negativo mais nas mulheres do que nos homens.
A lei permite discriminação indirecta (mas não discriminação directa) se o empregador (patrão) pode mostrar porque precisava de impor as condições e que as condições eram “proporcionadas”. Por exemplo, um empregador que não permite a divisão de emprego teria de mostrar que era necessário ele ter empregados trabalhando exclusivamente a tempo integral.
Embora o custo seja uma razão que possa ser considerada, o empregador não pode utilizar apenas o custo como justificação para o tratamento.
Assédio
O assédio defina-se como is conduta indesejada que viola a dignidade duma outra pessoa ou lhe cria um ambiente intimidador, hostil, degradante, humilhante ou ofensivo.
Não importa se o assédio tenha sido propositado ou não: será ilegal se tiver esse efeito.
O entendimento da pessoa assediada deve ser tomado em conta, porque ainda pode ser assédio se aquele indivíduo assim entender, mesmo se outro indivíduo não o entendesse assim.
Um processo pode ser bem sucedido mesmo se houvesse apenas um único caso de assédio.
Perseguição
A perseguição refere-se ao tratamento menos favorável dum trabalhador porque fez uma queixa de discriminação – seja ou não a queixa referente ao próprio trabalhador ou a outra pessoa. Isso significa que um trabalhador pode reclamar através duma das leis de discriminação por ter apoiado um colega, mesmo se o próprio não tivesse o direito à proteção dessa lei.
Por exemplo, convocar um empregado a uma reunião disciplinar porque tinha feito uma acusação de discriminação racial, poderia ser considerado perseguição. Também poderia ser assim considerado negar promoção a alguém porque tinha feito um depoimento numa reclamação dum colega por discriminação sexual.
Uma reclamação de persiguição apenas será bem sucedida se o reclamante possa mostrar que a queixa tenha sido a razão pela qual o empregador tivesse agido da maneira que agiu. Por exemplo, se o tratamento alegado fosse feito por alguém que não soubesse que o reclamante tivesse feito a mesma reclamação, não poderia haver nehuma perseguição.
Discriminação por invalidez
Para ganhar proteção na base da Lei de Discriminação por Invalidez (Disability Discrimination Act, DDA), um indivíduo terá de ser inválido (a não ser que faça uma reclamação por perseguição). A invalidez define-se como “um prejuizo físico ou mental que tenha um efeito negativo substancial e de longo prazo sobre a capacidade de um indivíduo poder desempenhar atividades diárias normais”.
Não há nenhuma lista definitiva do que constitui um prejuizo físico ou mental. Porém, as condições que podem ser consideradas invalidez, mas que nem sempre são reconhecidas como tal, incluem depressão, epilepsia, asma, dislexia, dificuldades de aprendizagem, e doenças alimentares.
Tratamento menos favorável por causa da invalidez dum trabalhador, ou por uma razão relacionada com a invalidez, é ilegal. O assédio e a perseguição também são ilegais na base da DDA, e têm o mesmo significado como enunciado acima.
Os empregadores também são obrigados a fazer “ajustes razoáveis” nas condições ou práticas de trabalho, se estas prejudicarem substancialmente um trabalhador inválido comparado com trabalhadores que não são inválidos. Quais ajustes serão razoaveis dependerá das circunstâncias particulares, mas poderiam incluir, por exemplo, horas de trabalho flexiveis, modificações no local de trabalho, licença especial, ou a provisão de formação profissional e apoio.
Tradução - inglês WORKPLACE RIGHTS
DISCRIMINATION
The law prohibits discrimination in employment on the following specific grounds:
sex and transsexuality (Sex Discrimination Act 1975)
race and nationality (Race Relations Act 1976)
disability (Disability Discrimination Act 1995)
sexual orientation (Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003)
religion or belief (Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003)
age (Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006)
Discrimination in pay on grounds of sex is covered by equal pay legislation (Equal Pay Act 1970). Pay discrimination on other grounds is dealt with by the relevant discrimination legislation above.
There are four main types of discrimination: direct, indirect, victimisation and harassment. There are some differences in the law on disability discrimination, which are dealt with under a separate heading below.
Direct discrimination
Direct discrimination is treating someone less favourably than someone else because of their sex, race, disability, sexual orientation, religion or belief or age. For example, paying someone less because of their nationality, promoting only men into more senior positions, and asking intrusive questions only of workers believed to be gay would all amount to less favourable treatment.
To succeed in a claim of direct discrimination, a worker will need to compare their treatment with that of a person in a similar position, but who is of a different sex, race, sexual orientation, etc. This person is called the comparator. If there is no actual comparator the claimant use a hypothetical comparator, by showing that someone of a different sex, race, etc., would have been treated differently.
Indirect discrimination
Indirect discrimination is imposing the same conditions on all workers, but with the result that they adversely affect one group more than another. For example, refusing to give annual leave for cultural or religious festivals may amount to indirect discrimination; so may refusing to allow job-sharing, as this may adversely affect more women than men.
The law allows indirect discrimination (but not direct discrimination) if the employer can show a reason why it needed to impose the conditions and that the conditions were “proportionate”. For example, an employer who does not allow job-sharing would have to show that it was necessary for them to have employees working on a full-time basis only.
Although cost is one factor that can be taken into account, the employer cannot use cost by itself as a reason for justifying the treatment.
Harassment
Harassment is defined as unwanted conduct that violates another’s dignity or
creates an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment for them.
It does not matter whether or not the harassment was intentional; it will be unlawful if it has that effect.
The perception of the person on the receiving end must be taken into account, so it can still be harassment if that individual perceives it to be so, even if another individual would not.
A case can be successful even if there has only been a single act of harassment.
Victimisation
Victimisation refers to the less favourable treatment of a worker because they have made a complaint of discrimination – whether the complaint was in connection with themselves or someone else. This means that a worker can bring a claim under one of the discrimination acts for supporting a colleague, even if they would not otherwise be eligible for protection under that act.
For example, calling an employee to a disciplinary meeting because they have made allegations of race discrimination could be victimisation. So could refusing promotion to someone because they have given evidence in a colleague’s sex discrimination claim.
A victimisation claim will only succeed if the claimant can show that the complaint was the reason why the employer had acted in the way it did. For example, if the alleged treatment is carried out by someone who did not know that the claimant had made such a complaint, there can be no victimisation.
Disability discrimination
To gain protection under the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA), an individual must have a disability (unless they are bringing a claim of victimisation). This is defined as “a physical or mental impairment which has a substantial and long-term adverse effect on the individual’s ability to carry out normal day-to-day activities.”
There is no definitive list of what constitutes a physical or mental impairment. However, conditions that can amount to disabilities but may not always be recognised as such include depression, epilepsy, asthma, dyslexia, learning difficulties and eating disorders.
Less favourable treatment because of a worker’s disability, or for a reason related to their disability, is unlawful. Harassment and victimisation are also unlawful under the DDA, and have the same meaning as set out above.
Employers are also required to make “reasonable adjustments” to their working conditions or practices if these put a disabled worker at a substantial disadvantage compared with non-disabled workers. What adjustments are reasonable will depend on the particular circumstances, but could include, for example, flexible working hours, modifications to the workplace, special leave, or the provision of training and support.
português para inglês: Maternity leave General field: Outra Detailed field: Recursos humanos
Texto de origem - português Licença e subsídio de maternidade
As mulheres grávidas e as lactantes têm uma série direitos básicos estatutuários de maternidade. Esses são os direitos mínimos disponíveis e alguns empregadores (patrões) oferecem benefícios adicionais de maternidade no contrato de emprego. Qualquer termo contratual que um empregador ofereça dever ser igual a ou melhor do que o mínimo estatutuário.
A maioria dos direitos estatutuários de maternidade se aplica apenas às “empregadas” e não à definição mais ampla de “trabalhadoras”, tais como trabalhadoras temporárias (agency workers) ou trabalhadoras ocasionais, com a excepção do subsídio estatutuário de maternidade, que é paga tanto às trabalhadoras como às empregadas, desde que cumpram certas condições (veja abaixo em “Subsídio de maternidade”).
Folga para assistência pré-natal
Qualquer empregada grávida tem o direito a folga com vencimento para consultas pré-natais desde que a consulta seja marcada a concelho de um médico registrado, parteira ou enfermeira. A empregada deve poder fornecer provas das consultas por escrito se for solicitada, com a excepção da primeira consulta.
Suspensão por motivo de maternidade
Se uma empregada estiver incapacitada de fazer seu trabalho normal por razões de higiene e segurança pelo motivo de estar grávida, de dar à luz recentemente ou de estar amamentando, ela tem o direito de ser oferecido trabalho alternativo apropriado (“suitable alternative employment)”, nos mesmos termos e condições. Se não houver nenhum trabalho apropriado disponível, o empregador pode suspender a empregada do trabalho, mas deve continuar a pagar o salário.
Licença de maternidade
A Licença de maternidade normal (Ordinary Maternity Leave, OML) dura até 26 semanas. As duas semanas imediatamente após o parto (quatro semanas para trabalhadoras de fábrica) são conhecidas como licença de maternidade obrigatória e um empregador não dever permitir que a empregada trabalhe durante esse período. Essas semanas obrigatórias fazem parte das 26 semanas de licença de maternidade normal (OML) Todas as empregadas têm direito à OML, sem contar com o tempo de serviço com esse empregador ou com as horas de trabalho.
A Licença de maternidade adicional (Additional Maternity Leave, AML) dura mais 26 semanas. Qualquer mulher que tenha direito à licença de maternidade normal também terá direito a licença de maternidade adicional, desde uma mudança da lei em Abril de 2007.
Subsídio de maternidade
Uma mulher só tem direito ao subsídio estatutuário de maternidade (statutory maternity pay, SMP) se cumprir os seguintes requisitos:
Trabalha para o seu empregador durante pelo menos 26 semanas até a 15a semana antes da data prevista do parto;
Nas oito semanas (ou dois meses se é paga mensalmente) antes da 15a semana, o salário médio é pelo menos £87 por semana (grosso);
Até a 15a semana antes da data prevista do parto, informa o empregador da data que tenciona começar a licença de maternidade.
Porém, o direito de receber o subsídio estatutuário de maternidade (“SMP”) abrange todas as trabalhadoras e não apenas as empregadas.
Antes de receber o SMP, a mulher deve dar ao empregador uma prova médica da sua gravidez, e ela deve parar de trabalhar.
O SMP é pago a 90% do salário médio durante seis semanas, seguido por um “salário-base” durante até 33 semanas. O salário-base por 2007-08 é de £112,75 por semana, ou, se a mulher ganha menos que isso, 90% do seu salário médio.
O SMP é pago pelo empregador da mesma maneira que é normalmente pago o salário.
Uma mulher tem direito ao SMP se voltar ao trabalho depois do parto ou não.
Uma mulher que não tem direito ao SMP poderá reclamar o Subsídio de Maternidade (Maternity Allowance, MA) através do Centro de Emprego local (Jobcentre Plus).
Direitos durante a licença de maternidade
Durante a Licença de Maternidade Normal (OML), uma mulher tem direito a todos os benefícios contratuais (com a excepção do salário) que ela teria recebido se não tivesse estado de licença de maternidade. Esses benefícios podem incluir, por exemplo, sistemas de opções de participacão (share option schemes), seguro médico, ou ter matriculada num centro de ginástica. Também continuará a acumular o direito a férias enquanto estiver de licença, que ela pode tirar antes ou depois da licença de maternidade. Ela também tem o direito de ser informada de qualquer vaga na empresa que possa aparecer.
Durante a licença de maternidade adicional (AML) os termos contratuais da mulher são mais limitados. Esses incluem o direito a aviso prévio, indenização por demissão (redundancy pay), e procedimentos disciplinares ou de agravo. Uma mulher que está de licença de maternidade adicional acumula apenas o direito estatutuário a férias (equivalente a quatro semanas por ano) e nenhumas férias contratuais adicionais, a não ser que haja um termo específico no contrato dela que permita isso.
Volta ao trabalho
Uma mulher pode mudar a data em que tenciona voltar da licença de maternidade desde que dê oito semanas de aviso prévio ao empregador.
Uma mulher que volta ao trabalho depois da licença de maternidade normal (OML) tem o direito de voltar ao mesmo emprego especificado no contrato. Uma mulher que vai de licença de maternidade adicional (AML) tem o direito de voltar ao mesmo emprego ou a um emprego alternativo apropriado se não for razoavelmente viável ela voltar ao mesmo emprego.
Tradução - inglês MATERNITY LEAVE AND PAY
Pregnant women and new mothers have a number of basic statutory maternity rights. These are the minimum rights available and some employers provide additional maternity benefits through the contract of employment. Any contractual terms that an employer provides must be the same as or better than the statutory minimum.
Most of the statutory maternity rights apply to “employees” only and not to the wider definition of “workers”, such as agency workers or casual workers, except for statutory maternity pay, which is payable to workers as well as employees as long as they meet the qualifying conditions (see below under “Maternity pay”).
Time off for antenatal care
All pregnant employees have the right to paid time off for antenatal appointments as long as the appointment has been made on the advice of a registered medical practitioner, midwife or nurse. Except for the first appointment, the employee must be able to provide written proof of the appointment if asked.
Suspension on maternity grounds
If an employee is unable to do her usual work for health and safety reasons on the grounds that she is pregnant, has recently given birth or is breastfeeding, she has the right to be offered suitable alternative work, on the same terms and conditions. If there is no suitable work available, her employer can suspend her from work but must continue to pay her.
Maternity leave
Ordinary maternity leave (OML) lasts for up to 26 weeks. The two weeks immediately following the birth (four weeks for factory workers) are known as compulsory maternity leave and an employer must not allow the employee to work during this period. These weeks are included in the 26 weeks’ OML. All employees are entitled to take OML, regardless of how long they have worked for their employer or the hours they work.
Additional maternity leave (AML) lasts for a further 26 weeks. Any woman who is entitled to ordinary maternity leave will also be entitled to additional maternity leave, since the law changed in April 2007.
Maternity pay
A woman is only entitled to receive statutory maternity pay (SMP) if she fulfils the following requirements:
she has worked for her employer for at least 26 weeks by the 15th week before the baby is due;
in the eight weeks (or two months if she is paid monthly) prior to the 15th week her average earnings were at least £87 a week (before tax);
by the 15th week before the baby is due, she has told her employer the date she intends to begin her maternity leave;
However, the right to be paid SMP applies to the wider group of workers and not just employees.
Before SMP can be paid, the woman must have given her employer medical evidence of her pregnancy, and she must have stopped work.
SMP is paid at 90% of average earnings for six weeks followed by a “flat rate” for up to 33 weeks. The flat rate for 2007-08 is £112.75 per week or, if the woman earns less than that, 90% of her average earnings.
SMP is paid by the employer in the same way that wages are usually paid.
A woman is entitled to SMP whether or not she returns to work afterwards.
A woman who does not qualify for SMP may be able to claim Maternity Allowance (MA) through her local Jobcentre Plus office.
Rights during maternity leave
During OML a woman is entitled to all the contractual benefits (except for pay) that she would have had if she had not been on maternity leave. These could include, for example, share option schemes, medical insurance and health club membership. She will also continue to accrue holiday while she is on leave, which she can take either before or after her maternity leave. She also has the right to be told about any jobs that become available.
During AML a woman is covered by more limited contractual terms. These include the right to notice, redundancy pay and disciplinary or grievance procedures. A woman on AML accrues only her statutory holiday entitlement (equivalent to four weeks a year) and not any additional contractual holiday, unless there is a specific term in her contract allowing this.
Returning to work
A woman can change the date on which she intends to return from maternity leave as long as she gives her employer eight weeks’ notice.
A woman returning to work after OML is entitled to return to the same job that is specified in her contract. A woman who takes AML is entitled to return to the same job or a suitable alternative if it is not reasonably practicable for her to return to the same job.
português para inglês: Disciplinary and Grievance Procedures General field: Outra Detailed field: Recursos humanos
Texto de origem - português Procedimentos disciplinares e de agravo
Todos os empregadores (patrões) devem ter procedimentos disciplinares e de agravo. No mínimo, devem ter os seguintes tres passos:
• a queixa disciplinar ou de agravo deve ser apresentada por escrito;
• o empregador deve ter uma reunião para discutir a queixa;
• o empregado tem o direito a recurso.
Os procedimentos estatutuários apresentam apenas os requisitos mínimos, e às vezes os sindicatos negociaram procedimentos que vão além daqueles. Por exemplo, os procedimentos estatutuários se aplicam apenas àqueles classificados, em termos legais, como “empregados”, o que pode excluir os trabalhadores temporários (agency workers) ou os trabalhadores ocasionais. Os sindicatos podem ter negociado procedimentos que abranjam todos os trabalhadores.
Os procedimentos disciplinares permitem que os trabalhadores saibam quais são os critérios que lhes são devidos, e que promovam imparcialidade e coerência. Os procedimentos de agravo apresentam os pormenores de como os trabalhadores possam fazer uma queixa formal acerca de questões laborais. Um empregador tem o dever geral de tratar de assuntos disciplinares e de agravo de uma maneira razoável.
Os procedimentos disciplinares
Aos empregados que enfrentam uma acção disciplinar deve ser dado tempo adequado para preparar a sua defesa e ter a oportunidade para apresentar e pedir provas e para chamar testemunhas.
As normas (Code of practice) emitidas pelo Serviço Nacional de Consulta, Conciliação e Arbitragem (Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service, ACAS) afirmam que, como princípio geral, os empregadores devem:
• utilizar procedimentos que ajudem e incentivem os empregados a se melhorarem, em vez de apenas como castigo;
• informar o empregado da queixa contra ele, e lhe dar uma oportunidade para apresentar o seu caso antes de chegar a uma decisão;
• permitir que os empregados sejam acompanhados (veja abaixo);
• garantir que os indícios foram establecidos antes de ser tomada qualquer acção disciplinar, e que a acção seja razoável nas circunstâncias;
• nunca despedir um empregado por um primeiro delito, a não ser por um caso de flagrante má conduta (gross misconduct);
• dar ao empregado uma explicação por escrito por qualquer acção disciplinar tomada e garantir que o empregado saiba como deveria melhorar o seu comportamento;
• dar ao empregado uma oportunidade para recorrer;
• tratar das questões de uma maneira rigorosa e o mais rápidamente possível;
• agir com consistência.
Os procedimentos disciplinares normalmente especificam uma série de avisos, que conduzirá ao despedimento. Normalmente, os avisos caducarão depois de um período de tempo especificado no procedimento, e um empregador não deveria contar com um aviso disciplinar caducado.
Procedimentos de agravo
Um agravo (motivo grave de queixa) pode ser relacionado com uma série de questões no local de trabalho, incluindo: os termos e condições do emprego; mudanças no regime de trabalho; perseguição e assédio; discriminação, e higiene e segurança.
Um trabalhador poderá resolver um agravo informalmente, mas se isso não for possível, ele pode expor formalmente a questão por escrito. Isso será feito normalmente para o imediato superior do trabalhador, mas se o agravo for acerca desse superior, deveria ser exposto com um gerente, ou com um director em outra parte da organisação.
Uma vez que um agravo formal for apresentado, o empregador deve convidar o empregador a uma audiência. As normas do ACAS dão a orientação seguinte:
• a reunião deverá ser feita o mais rapidamente possível, a uma hora e num local combinados com o empregado;
• o empregado deverá ser informado do seu direito de ser acompanhado (veja abaixo);
• a reunião não deve ser interrompida, e o agravo deverá ser discutido confidencialmente;
• deverá ser permitido ao empregado explicar a sua queixa, e explicar como ele considera que a queixa deveria ser resolvida;
• se o empregador precisar de fazer uma investigação ou pedir concelhos, a reunião deverá ser suspensa;
• o empregador deverá examinar cuidadosamente o agravo antes de responder;
• o empregador deverá responder ao agravo por escrito, normalmente dentro de cinco dias úteis, e deverá informar ao empregado a quem pode recorrer;
• se não for possível responder dentro de cinco dias úteis, o empregador deverá informar quando o empregado pode esperar uma resposta.
O direito de ser acompanhado
Na alínea 10 da Lei de Relações de Trabalho de 1999 (Employment Relations Act 1999) um trabalhador que é obrigado ou convidado por um empregador a assistir a uma audiência disciplinar ou de agravo, tem o direito de ser acompanhado por um companheiro. O companheiro será escolhido pelo trabalhador e pode ser:
um funcionário sindical a tempo integral, seja ou não o sindicato reconhecido;
um funcionário leigo autorisado (uma pessoa que foi formado pelo sindicato para acompanhar indivíduos nas audiências); ou
um colega do local de trabalho.
Para a reunião ser reconhecida como uma audiência disciplinar, terá de ser uma reunião que puderá resultar num aviso ou noutra acção que será registrado no arquivo do trabalhador. Ser ou não a reunião uma audiência disciplinar depende do que acontece na reunião, e não do que o empregador a chama. Por exemplo, um empregador poderia convocar um empregado a uma “reunião de investigação”, mas se, a qualquer altura, se tornar evidente para o trabalhador que a reunião poderá resultar em alguma forma de acção disciplinar, será uma reunião disciplinar. O trabalhador poderá pedir uma suspensão da reunião para poder combinar que um representante seja presente.
Se o companheiro escolhido por um trabalhador não estiver disponível na data fixa para a audiência, terá de ser adiada para uma nova data que seja razoável, e dentro de cinco dias da data original da audiência.
Tradução - inglês DISCIPLINARY AND GRIEVANCE PROCEDURES
All employers must have disciplinary and grievance procedures. As a minimum, they must contain three steps:
the disciplinary or grievance complaint must be set out in writing,
the employer must hold a meeting to discuss it,
the employee has the right to appeal.
The statutory procedures set out just the minimum requirements, and sometimes unions have negotiated procedures that go beyond these. For example, the statutory procedures apply only to those classed in legal terms as “employees”, which may exclude agency or casual workers. Unions may have negotiated procedures to cover all workers.
Disciplinary procedures allow workers to know what standards are expected of them and to promote fairness and consistency. Grievance procedures set out details of how workers can make a formal complaint about work issues. An employer has a general duty to deal with disciplinary and grievance matters reasonably.
Disciplinary procedures
Employees facing disciplinary action should be given adequate time to prepare a defence and have the opportunity to give and call evidence and to call witnesses.
The Code of practice issued by ACAS (the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service) states that, as a general principle, employers should:
• use procedures to help and encourage employees to improve rather than just as punishment;
• inform the employee of the complaint against them, and give them the opportunity to state their case before reaching a decision;
• allow employees to be accompanied (see below);
• make sure that the facts have been established before disciplinary action is taken, and that the action is reasonable in the circumstances;
• never dismiss an employee for a first offence, unless it is a case of gross misconduct;
• give the employee a written explanation for any disciplinary action taken and make sure they know what improvement is expected;
• give the employee an opportunity to appeal;
• deal with issues as thoroughly and promptly as possible;
• act consistently.
Disciplinary procedures will normally specify a series of warnings leading eventually to dismissal. Usually the warnings will expire after a period of time set out in the procedure, and an employer should not rely on an expired disciplinary warning.
Grievance procedures
A grievance can relate to a wide range of workplace issues, including: terms and conditions of employment; changes to working practices; bullying and harassment; equal opportunities, and health and safety.
A worker may be able to resolve a grievance informally but, if not, can raise it formally in writing. This should usually be done to the worker’s line manager, but if the grievance is about that manager should be raised with a senior manager or a manager in a different part of the organisation.
Once a formal grievance has been made, an employer must invite the employee to a hearing. The ACAS Code of practice gives the following guidance:
• the meeting should be held as soon as possible at a time and place agreed with the employee;
• the employee should be informed of their right to be accompanied (see below);
• the meeting should not be interrupted and the grievance should be treated confidentially;
• the employee should be allowed to explain their complaint and say how they think it should be settled;
• if the employer needs to investigate or get advice, the meeting should be adjourned;
• the employer should give the grievance careful consideration before responding;
• the employer should respond in writing to the grievance, normally within five working days, and tell the employee who they can appeal to;
• if it is not possible to respond within five working days, the employer should explain when the employee can expect a response.
The right to be accompanied
Under section 10 of the Employment Relations Act 1999 a worker who is required or invited by an employer to attend a disciplinary or grievance hearing has the right to bring a companion. The companion is chosen by the worker and can be:
a full-time union official, whether or not the union is recognised;
a certified lay official (someone whom the union has trained to accompany individuals to hearings); or
a workplace colleague.
To qualify as a disciplinary hearing the meeting has to be one that could result in a warning or some other action that is held on the worker’s file. Whether or not the meeting is a disciplinary hearing depends on what happens at the meeting and not what the employer calls it. For example, an employer may call a worker to an “investigation meeting”, but if at any stage it becomes clear to the worker that the meeting may result in some form of disciplinary action, it will be a disciplinary meeting. The worker can ask for the hearing to be adjourned so that they can arrange for a representative to be present.
If a worker’s chosen companion is not available on the date fixed for the hearing it has to be postponed to a new date which is reasonable and within five days of the original hearing date.
francês para inglês: Sole diners General field: Outra Detailed field: Comidas e Bebidas
Texto de origem - francês Ces dernières années, le nombre de mangeurs solo n'a cessé d'augmenter. En 2016, un tiers de repas au restaurant se prenaient seuls, selon NPD Group, spécialiste des études de marché. En France, ces visites ont grimpé de 10% de 2010 à 2016. Mais pourquoi manger non accompagné nous paraît-il encore une pratique générale ?
Dans notre culture, le fait de manger sans compagnie va à l'encontre d'une notion centrale : la commensalité, c'est le fait de partager sa table et son repas avec un autre. En réalité, il s'agit de « transformer une fonction biologique vulgaire, triviale, animale, en quelque chose de social et civilisé » , explique Estelle Masson, maître de conférence en psychologie sociale à l'université de Brest.
La plupart des religions, mythes, contes... enjoignent de manger ensemble et réprouvent les consommations alimentaires solitaires. Au cours de l'histoire, la figure du mangeur solitaire a, de fait, toujours été associée à un univers marginal, négativement connoté, qui s'incarne à travers l'ermite, le sauvage, et le fou. Car qui mange seul, si ce n'est celui qui n'a personne avec qui manger, c'est-à-dire celui qui est coupé de toute communauté humaine ?
Autrement dit, manger est une activité sociale, qui nourrit le corps autant que le lien rationnel. En France, en tout cas (notre repas gastronomique est d'ailleurs inscrit au patrimoine culturel immatériel de l'humanité, depuis 2010). Car Gérard Apfeldorfer, psychiatre spécialiste des comportements alimentaires, précise : « Dans les pays Anglo-saxons et scandinaves, manger consiste pour l'essentiel à apporter au corps ce dont il a besoin. » Aux États-Unis, se restaurer seul-e est même de plus en plus perçu comme un signe d'indépendance, une pratique qui donne du pouvoir et libère. En France, sans tomber dans la parano, les gens ont tendance à vous regarder différemment.
Au restaurant, le visiteur seul continue de susciter le mystère. Dans la majeure partie des cas, on a plutôt affaire a des habitués ou « des épicuriens très gastronomiques » qui veulent se poser au calme, loin des enfants, du travail et savourer ce temps rare et précieux en pleine conscience. Décupler ses sensations gustatives, en faisant fi du regard des autres et des conventions sociales.
Finalement, celui qui choisit de manger seul par pur volupté ne s'arroge-t-il pas une liberté ? Gérard Apfeldorfer répond : « Pour manger seul-e, on est obligé de surmounter une forme d'interdit culturel celui de prendre plaisir de façon solitaire. C'est aussi une affaire d'autorisation et d'estime de soi. Est-ce que je mérite ce plaisir, est-ce que je m'autorise à m'offrir ça? »
A cet égard, le fait que ces gourmets solitaires soient majoritairement des hommes, n'est pas anodin. Historiquement, une femme n'allait pas seule au restaurant ou alors c'était une femme de mauvaise vie. Les temps changent, heureusement. Mais la démarche reste essentiellement masculine.
Pour Muriel, infirmière et mère de quatre enfants, cette pratique est au contraire synonyme d'émancipation. Il y a quinze ans, elle venait d'avoir son troisième enfant lorsqu'elle a décidé de s'accorder, en solo, cette pause lors de sa journée de course de jeudi. Une façon, pour elle, de « gérer sa frustration : « Est-ce que j'allais attendre de bon vouloir de mon mari qui n'aime pas particulièrement aller au restaurant, ou me prendre par la main ? »
« Quand on est mère de famille nombreuse, on cherche des restos servants rapidement : le repas doit être torché en une heure, sinon les enfants commencent à bouger. Manger seul m'a permis de ne pas être obnubilée par l'efficacité du service. » Mais cela a été un « apprentissage », « un long travail d’estime de soi » .
Tradução - inglês In recent times, the numbers of lone diners have continued to rise. In 2016 a third of the meals eaten in restaurants were eaten alone, according to NPD Group, specialists in market research. In France, these visits have increased by 10% between 2010 and 2016. But why eat alone when it appears to be an uncomfortable activity?
Within our culture, the act of eating without company goes against a key idea: commensality. Commensality is the act of sharing a table and meal with someone else. In actual fact, it involves the ‘transformation of a biological function which is common, trivial, and a basic animal need, into something which is sociable and civilised’, explains Estelle Masson, senior lecturer in social psychology at the university of Brest.
In most cases, religions, legends and stories require people to eat together and disapprove of solitary food consumption. Throughout history, the image of the lone diner has, in fact, always been associated with a marginalised sector of society; it has a negative connotation, which has been embodied by the hermit, the uncivilised and the insane. Who eats alone, if not someone who hasn’t got anybody to eat with, who is disconnected from all human contact?
In other words, eating is a social activity, which nourishes the body as well as relationships. This is the situation in France at least (our gastronomy was added to the list of the intangible cultural heritage of humanity by UNESCO in 2010). Gérard Apfeldorfer, a psychiatrist specialising in eating habits, notes by contrast that, ‘In Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian countries, eating consists largely of providing the body with what it requires’. In the United States, dining alone is increasingly viewed as a sign of independence, an experience which gives one power and freedom. In France, without becoming paranoid, people are inclined to perceive you in a different way.
In restaurants, the lone diner continues to be a mystery. In most cases, these people largely consist of regular customers or ‘indulgent connoisseurs of gastronomy’ who are looking for calm, away from children and work, savouring fully their scarce and precious spare time. Heightening the taste sensations, by ignoring the gaze of others and social conventions.
After all, are those that choose to eat alone out of a sense of pure pleasure not claiming a certain liberty for themselves? Apfeldorfer responds, ‘In order to eat alone, you are compelled to overcome a form of cultural prohibition, that of experiencing pleasure in a solitary manner. It is also a case of giving oneself permission and displaying self-confidence. Do I deserve this pleasure, can I allow myself this indulgence'?
In this context, it is not insignificant that most of the lone diners are men. Historically, a woman would not go to a restaurant unaccompanied for fear of being considered a woman of ill repute. Happily, times have changed. However, the practice remains essentially masculine.
For Muriel, nurse, and mother of four children, this activity is on the contrary synonymous with freedom. Fifteen years ago, she had just had her third child when she decided to allow herself a meal break during her regular Thursday shopping day, alone. It was a way for her to ‘manage my frustration. Was I going to wait on the goodwill of my husband who wasn’t particularly keen on going to restaurants, or go it alone’?
‘When you are the mother of a big family, you look for restaurants with rapid service. The meal should be all done within an hour, otherwise the children start to fidget. Eating alone has allowed me to not become obsessed by the level of service’. However, it has been a ‘learning process, a long process of building self-esteem’.
francês para inglês: Kristin Frederick, the “Mama” of Ménlimontant General field: Outra Detailed field: Comidas e Bebidas
Texto de origem - francês C’est un petit bout de femme qui ne mâche pas ses mots. Accoudée au comptoir en bois blond de son bar à vins naturels, elle a des phrases tranchantes comme ses couteaux. Nature, enjouée, pétillant, à l’image de son restaurant Greenhouse, Kristin Frederick est une femme haute en couleur. Dans la minuscule salle d’à peine quelques dizaines de mètres carrés de décorée avec goût, on se demande comment elle arrive à caser des plantes vertes, des planches botaniques suspendues aux murs et même une étagère de livres. C’est que Kristin Frederick est un peut tout ça. Aujourd’hui.
À son arrivée en France la Californienne avait pourtant pris une tout autre direction. Après avoir été formée à l’école Ferrandi et fait ses classes au sein du restaurant étoilé Apicius, elle a créé, avec son compagnon de l’époque, le premier « food truck » parisien, Le Camion qui fume. Ses burgers maison de qualité, recherchés par les gourmets, ont récolté un succès insolent. De telle sorte que la chaîne réalise aujourd’hui 3 millions de chiffres d’affaires avec cinq points de vente, dont deux camions et trois restaurants, qui représentent 45 employés.
« Le Camion, c'était moi il y a sept ans », lance-t-elle en repensant à cette aventure. Même si elle est toujours associée minoritaire, elle a revendu la majorité de ses parts au fonds d'investissement Arts et Biens. « J'adore les burgers mais j'en ai mangé et cuisiné suffisamment » tranche-t-elle.
Le déclic a été brutal. « Un jour j'ai décidé de visiter un abattoir, pour comprendre ce que je cuisinais ». Le choc. Sans pour devenir végétarienne, l'Américaine veut évoluer vers une alimentation plus saine.
Kristin Frederick décidé de transformer l'ancienne cuisine centrale du Camion qui fume en bars à vins. Révélateur: l'espace dédié aux fourneaux de quatre-vingts mètres carrés est presque trois fois plus grand que la salle. C'est ici que l'Américaine, élevée entre une mère gérant un restaurant italien et un beau-père chinois, qui a vécu à Los Angeles, où l'influence mexicaine est prépondérante, fait la synthèse des cuisines du monde qu'elle a découvertes à travers ses nombreux voyages.
Quand on évoque son inspiration à une cuisine simple et créative, elle est piquée au vif: « Pointue! », rectifie-t-elle. « On doit être capable de bien manger à prix raisonnable », lance celle qui n'hésite pas à dire ce qu'elle pense à un chef lorsqu'elle prend un repas à la hauteur, « surtout s'il est cher ».
Quand on la devine « anti-restaurant étoile », elle répond du tac au tac : « Je cuisine avec les mêmes produits que la cuisine étoilée ». Et pas n'importe lesquels: Kristin Frederick, qui ne met jamais les pieds à Rungis, s'approvisionne auprès de petits maraîchers d'Iles de France, bio mais pas exclusivement, de pêcheurs de thon à la ligne et de vignerons indépendants produisant des vins naturels. Elle a recours au maximum aux légumes de saison, les met en bocaux pour les faire marinier quand il lui en reste, mais reconnaît qu'elle a encore des progrès à faire en matière de tri des déchets. De quoi attirer l'attention du label de restauration écoresponsable Écotable, qui vient du lui être décerné.
Sa démarche environnementale ne s'arrête pas là. Sur la petite place à l'angle du passage Ménilmontant, devant sa terrasse à l'ombre d'un cerisier où se pressent bobos et clientèle populaire, se trouve son potager. Aubergines, courgettes, herbes aromatiques.... « La production n'est qu'en partie destinée au restaurant, nous la partageons avec les gens du quartier, qui participent à son entretien », explique-t-elle. À commencer par l'Armée du salut, dont les locaux se trouvent juste en face.
Tradução - inglês She’s a diminutive woman who doesn’t mince her words. Leaning on the pale wooden counter in her organic wine bar, she speaks in a manner which is as sharp as her knives. Wild, joyous, bubbly, Kristin Frederick is a colourful character, just like her restaurant Greenhouse. Within the tiny, tastefully decorated room of only a few dozen square metres, you wonder how she manages to squeeze in all the leafy plants, the botanical prints hanging from the wall and even a shelf full of books. This is a little vision of Frederick.
However, on arriving in France, the Californian started out in a completely different direction. After being trained at the Ferrandi school where she learned the ropes at the Michelin starred restaurant Apicius, she created, along with her partner at that time, the first Parisian “food truck”, Le camion qui fume. Her good quality homemade burgers, sought out by foodies, were a big hit. As a result, the chain now has a turnover of three million euros with five outlets, including two trucks and three restaurants, with 45 employees.
“Le Camion, that was me seven years ago” she gushes while reminiscing about that adventure. Even now she is still a minority shareholder, having resold most of her shares to the investment fund Arts et Biens. “I love burgers, but I’ve eaten and cooked quite enough of them” she concludes.
The turning point was abrupt. “One day, I decided to visit an abattoir, in order to understand what I was cooking”. It was shocking. Without becoming a vegetarian, the American wanted to migrate towards healthier food.
Frederick decided to transform the former central kitchen of Le Camion qui fume into a wine bar. The result was impressive, a space designed with a kitchen measuring eighty square metres which is almost three times bigger than the dining room. It’s here that the American, raised by a mother managing an Italian restaurant and a Chinese stepfather, who lived In Los Angeles, where Mexican influence is widespread, completed the synthesis of her knowledge of world cuisine discovered through her numerous foreign trips.
She is stung by a comment on her desire for simple and creative cuisine, claiming on the contrary it’s “sophisticated!”. “You should be able to eat well for a reasonable price” asserts the woman who never shirks from telling a chef what she thinks when eating in restaurants where the produce, cooking and seasoning are not up to the mark, “especially if it’s expensive”.
When the suggestion is made that she is “opposed to restaurants with Michelin stars” she responds brusquely “I cook with the same produce as the kitchens with stars” and not just any old produce at that, Fredericks, who never sets foot in the International Rungis Market, is supplied by the small market gardeners of Ile de France in greater Paris (mainly but not exclusively the organic producers), the tuna fishermen who use rod and line and independent winemakers who produce organic wine. For the most part she uses seasonal vegetables and preserves them in jars by pickling at times of excess, however she does recognise that she has a long way to go in terms of sorting out waste. She has recently become aware of the fact that she needs to have the Ecotable label, which would allow them to be designated as a sustainable foodservice establishment.
Her environmental approach doesn’t stop there. She has an allotment in the small square on the corner of the passage de Ménlimontant, in front of her terrace in the shade of a cherry tree where hipsters and working-class customers mingle. Aubergines, courgettes, aromatic herbs. “The vegetables aren’t just for the restaurant, we share them with the locals, who help with growing them,” she explains. This starts with the Salvation Army, whose premises are directly opposite.
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Formação educacional em tradução
Graduate diploma - Institute of Linguists
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Anos de experiência em tradução: 19 Registrado no ProZ.com: Apr 2007.
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Bio
I studied the Intermediate Diploma in Translating in 1993 and achieved a distinction. Whilst working a researcher I regularly translated academic documents from Portuguese to English. Since 2004 I have worked for the TUC as a part-time translator translating documents from Spanish and Portuguese into and out of English. In 2011 I completed a 4 months online translation course with David Tolley at Cardiff University. With a background in mining, geology and teaching, I cover a range of specialist areas.
I have worked in the mining industry and as a science/maths teacher. I have also done some translation of science and maths books.
I am currently working towards achieving the Chartered Institute of Linguists Diploma in Translation from French to English, which I intend to do next year. I am carrying out a course through linguisttraining.com in Sheffield to prepare for this exam.
I would be happy to undertake an assessment to check my ability. I am particularly interested in longer projects which would allow me to continue to do some teaching alongside the translating. My specialist experience is in sciences, particularly Earth Sciences.
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